Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, plays a central role in the development and homeostasis of all multicellular organisms (Shi Y, 2002, Molecular Cell 9:459-470). A frequent hallmark of cancer is resistance to natural apoptotic signals. Depending on the cancer type, this resistance is typically due to up- or down-regulation of key proteins in the apoptotic cascade or to mutations in genes encoding these proteins. Such changes occur in both the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, which funnels through the mitochondria and caspase-9, and the extrinsic apoptotic pathway, which involves the action of death receptors and caspase-8. For example, alterations in proper levels of proteins such as p53, Bim, Bax, Apaf-1, FLIP and many others have been observed in cancers. The alterations can lead to a defective apoptotic cascade, one in which the upstream pro-apoptotic signal is not adequately transmitted to activate the executioner caspases, caspase-3 and caspase-7. FIG. 1 shows aspects of the apoptotic cascade.
As most apoptotic pathways ultimately involve the activation of procaspase-3, upstream genetic abnormalities are effectively “breaks” in the apoptotic circuitry, and as a result such cells proliferate atypically. Given the central role of apoptosis in cancer, efforts have been made to develop therapeutics that target specific proteins in the apoptotic cascade. For instance, peptidic or small molecule binders to cascade members such as p53 and proteins in the Bcl family or to the inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) family of proteins have pro-apoptotic activity, as do compounds that promote the oligomerization of Apaf-1. However, because such compounds target early (or intermediate to high) positions on the apoptotic cascade, cancers with mutations in proteins downstream of those members can still be resistant to the possible beneficial effects of those compounds.
For therapeutic purposes it would be advantageous to identify a small molecule that directly activates a proapoptotic protein far downstream in the apoptotic cascade. The approach to our invention involves such a relatively low position in the cascade, thus enabling the killing of even those cells that have mutations in their upstream apoptotic machinery. Moreover, the therapeutic strategies disclosed herein can have a higher likelihood of success if that proapoptotic protein were upregulated in cancer cells. In the present invention, our efforts to identify small molecules began with targeting the significant downstream effector protein of apoptosis, procaspase-3.
The conversion or activation of procaspase-3 to caspase-3 results in the generation of the active “executioner” caspase form that subsequently catalyzes the hydrolysis of a multitude of protein substrates. Active caspase-3 is a homodimer of heterodimers and is produced by proteolysis of procaspase-3. In vivo, this proteolytic activation typically occurs through the action of caspase-8 or caspase-9. To ensure that the proenzyme or zymogen is not prematurely activated, procaspase-3 has a 12 amino acid “safety catch” that blocks access to the ETD site (amino acid sequence, ile-glu-thr-asp) of proteolysis. See Roy, S. et al.; Maintenance of caspase-3 proenzyme dormancy by an intrinsic “safety catch” regulatory tripeptide, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 98, 6132-6137 (2001).
This safety catch enables procaspase-3 to resist autocatalytic activation and proteolysis by caspase-9. Mutagenic studies indicate that three consecutive aspartic acid residues appear to be the critical components of the safety catch. The position of the safety catch is sensitive to pH; thus, upon cellular acidification (as occurs during apoptosis) the safety catch is thought to allow access to the site of proteolysis, and active caspase-3 can be produced either by the action of caspase-9 or through an autoactivation mechanism.
In particular cancers, the expression of procaspase-3 is upregulated. A study of primary isolates from 20 colon cancer patients revealed that on average, procaspase-3 was upregulated six-fold in such isolates relative to adjacent noncancerous tissue (Roy et al., 2001). In addition, procaspase-3 is upregulated in certain neuroblastomas, lymphomas, and liver cancers (Nakagawara, A. et al., 1997, Cancer Res. 57:4578-4584; Izban, K. F. et al., Am. J. Pathol. 154:1439-1447; Persad, R. et al., Modern Patholo. 17:861-867). Furthermore, a systematic evaluation was performed of procaspase-3 levels in the 60 cell-line panel used for cancer screening by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) Developmental Therapeutics Program. The evaluation revealed that certain lung, melanoma, renal, and breast cancers show greatly enhanced levels of procaspase-3 expression (Svingen, P. A. et al., Clin. Cancer Res. 10:6807-6820).
Due to the role of active caspase-3 in achieving apoptosis, the relatively high expression levels of procaspase-3 in certain cancerous cell types, and the intriguing safety catch-mediated suppression of its autoactivation, we reasoned that small molecules that directly modify procaspase-3 could be identified and that such molecules could have great applicability in targeted cancer therapy.
Herein we disclose, inter alia, compositions and methods including small molecules capable of inducing cell death. In embodiments, compositions and methods involve compounds which can interact directly or indirectly with programmed cell death pathway members such as procaspase-3. In embodiments, compositions and methods of the invention have reduced neurotoxicity as compared to other compounds which interact directly or indirectly with programmed cell death pathway members such as procaspase-3.